Within the vast tapestry of Christian faith, few practices evoke as much discussion and varied interpretation as baptism. From the earliest days of the so-called church to our modern era, believers have grappled with its meaning, its mode, and its proper recipients. At its heart, however, all forms of Christian baptism should point to a foundational truth: the redemptive work of Jesus Christ. This post aims to explore the origins and practices of both infant and adult baptism, comparing them through the lens of biblical covenants and, most importantly, the finished work of Christ, while investigating the diverse theological understandings that underpinned religious doctrine and tradition.
Before we go into all of this, I thought it well to provide some wider perspective from an anthropological point of view.
From an anthropological perspective, rituals involving water for purification, initiation, or marking new beginnings are remarkably widespread across diverse human cultures and religions, reflecting universal themes of cleansing, transition, and renewal.
Here's a short summary of some known practices:
Universal Purification: Across many cultures, water is symbolically associated with purity and the removal of defilement. Indigenous traditions, ancient Near Eastern religions, and even modern-day practices often include ritual washing before sacred ceremonies, prayer, or after contact with something considered ritually "unclean." This function is broadly about preparing an individual to enter a hallowed space or state.
Rites of Passage/Initiation: Water rituals frequently mark a transition from one status to another. For example, in various tribal societies, adolescents might undergo water-based rites to signify their entry into adulthood. Similarly, in some primordial religions, initiates would undergo ceremonial bathing to symbolize their entry into the group and its secrets, leaving behind their old life. These are about membership and new identity within a community.
Symbolic Rebirth: Some rituals across different belief systems use water to symbolize a "death" to a former self or state and a "rebirth" into a new one. This might relate to spiritual renewal, recovery from illness, or a fresh start.
While Christian baptism, especially believer's baptism, shares these universal symbolic elements of purification, initiation, and new beginning (e.g., burial with Christ and rising to new life in Romans 6:3-4), it has attained a specific theological philosophy. And so, it became not merely a general church ritual, but an ordinance commanded by the institutional church. When we compare the historical reality of what Christ had accomplished—His death, resurrection, the outpouring of His Spirit and New Covenant Gospel message, a stark contradiction appears, especially from the perspective of mere rituals versus as a statement-of- receipt and embodiment of the Grace gift offered.
Baptism's Shadows in the Old Covenant: Ritual Cleansing and Prophetic Promise
Delving into the Old Covenant practice, it's essential to understand the concept of cleansing and purification in ancient Israel. While not "baptism" in the New Testament sense, the Old Covenant contained numerous rituals involving water, primarily for ceremonial purity.
The Israelite system of ritual washings (טְבִילָה, t'vilah - a ritual immersion, often for purification) was extensive, as detailed in the books of Leviticus and Numbers. Individuals, priests, or objects might become טָמֵא (tameh), or ritually "unclean," through contact with a dead body, certain bodily discharges, or other defiling agents. To become טָהוֹר (tahor), or ritually "clean" again, often required washing with water (e.g., Leviticus 15:5-11). These washings were for ceremonial purity, enabling participation in temple worship or community life, but they did not address the deeper issue of sin or spiritual regeneration. They were temporary, external acts.
However, the Old Testament also contained prophetic hints of a deeper, spiritual cleansing to come. Ezekiel 36:25-27 stands out: "I will sprinkle clean water on you, and you will be clean; I will cleanse you from all your impurities and from all your idols. I will give you a new heart and put a new spirit in you; I will remove from you your heart of stone and give you a heart of flesh. And I will put my Spirit in you and move you to follow my decrees and be careful to keep my laws." This prophecy speaks of an internal, transformative cleansing, foreshadowing the spiritual reality of the New Covenant along with the abiding Holy Spirit of God.
These Old Covenant washings, while distinct from Christian baptism, served as types and shadows, preparing God's people for a more profound and permanent cleansing – one that would wash clean in the holy blood of the Lamb of God– the baptism that the finished work of Christ would fully accomplish.
Baptism in the New Covenant: Believer's Baptism as Testimony to the Finished Work
The New Testament introduces baptism as a practice explicitly tied to repentance (see this post first), faith, and receiving (see this post and especially this one) Christ. The Greek word βαπτίζω (baptizō), from which "baptize" is derived, fundamentally means "to immerse, submerge, dip." This implies a complete covering.
From John the Baptist's ministry (Mark 1:4) to the apostolic practices, baptism consistently follows a conscious confirmation statement of faith. The Great Commission, given by Jesus Himself after His resurrection and prior to His ascension—the ultimate declaration of His finished work—instructs his followers: "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you" (Matthew 28:19-20). The sequence here is crucial: make disciples (implying belief and commitment), then baptize (implying receiving and confirming one’s faith).
Consider key examples from the book of Acts:
On the Day of Pentecost, Peter's call was clear: "Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit." (Acts 2:38). Repentance (we have to know what repentance really is) and baptism are linked directly.
When Philip preached the good news in Samaria, "when they believed Philip as he proclaimed the good news of the kingdom of God and the name of Jesus Christ, they were baptized, both men and women." (Acts 8:12). Belief precedes baptism.
The conversion of the Ethiopian eunuch: After Philip explained Isaiah 53 (prophesying Christ's atoning work), the eunuch immediately asked, "Look, here is water. What can stand in the way of my being baptized?" Philip's response: "If you believe with all your heart, you may." The eunuch then confessed, "I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God," and was baptized. (Acts 8:36-38). This clearly demonstrates faith as a prerequisite.
Cornelius and his household: "Can anyone keep these people from being baptized with water? They have received the Holy Spirit just as we have." (Acts 10:47-48). Here, the receiving of the Spirit (evidence of faith) even preceded water baptism (something the charismatic doctrines would strongly deny).
The significance of the believer's baptism is beautifully articulated by Paul in Romans 6:3-4: "Or do you not know that all of us who have been baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life." Here, baptism is portrayed as a profound identification with Christ's finished work: His death (dying to sin), burial (leaving the old life behind), and resurrection (rising to a new life in Him). It's an outward, symbolic testimony to an inward spiritual reality of regeneration and union with Christ, made possible by His completed victory over sin and death. The faith baptism is a public confirmation-statement of exactly that.
All of that said and done, let’s look at the controversies.
The Practice of Infant Baptism: Theological Frameworks and Historical Development
While explicit commands or examples of infant baptism are not found in the New Testament accounts, the pagan practice of baptizing infants, was assimilated by early organised institutional church movements in early Christian history and through the ages embraced by many major Christian denominations (e.g., Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Methodism, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism, Reformists).
The theological, denominational justifications for infant baptism typically revolve around concepts of covenant theology and the corporate nature of the institutional church:
Continuity with Circumcision: Proponents (such as the Dutch Reformed Church I grew up in) often draw a parallel between Old Covenant circumcision, which was a sign of inclusion in God's covenant people for male infants, and New Covenant baptism. Just as infants were included in God's covenant community in the Old Testament, so too are they included in the New. For this argument Colossians 2:11-12 is sometimes referenced: "In him you were also circumcised with a circumcision not performed by human hands... having been buried with him in baptism, in which you were also raised with him through your faith in the working of God." Interpretations vary on whether this directly links baptism as the "new circumcision" for infants and the relation to baptism itself, is fuzzy.
Household Baptisms: Some traditions interpret the New Testament accounts of "household" baptisms (e.g., Lydia's household in Acts 16:15, the Philippian jailer's household in Acts 16:33, Crispus's household in 1 Corinthians 1:16) to imply that infants within these households were also baptized, even though infants are not explicitly mentioned. The argument is that the head of the household's faith brought covenant inclusion for the whole family unit.
Grace for Infants/Prevenient Grace: Many who practice infant baptism emphasize that salvation is entirely God's initiative and not dependent on human response. Infant baptism is seen as a sign of God's unmerited favour, extended to infants within the believing community, often connected to the concept of prevenient grace (grace that precedes a person's conscious decision). It is viewed as God's promise to the child, with the expectation that the child will affirm this covenant relationship later in life through confirmation. The aspect of the individual’s own choice is grossly ignored in this practice belief.
Corporate Identity: Infant baptism can signify the child's incorporation into the believing community (denomination), the body of Christ, at a young age, signifying their unique identity and belonging before they can make a conscious choice.
Historically, infant baptism became widespread by the 3rd or 4th century, coinciding with Christianity's growth following the conversion of and decrees issued by Roman emperor Constantine. The Christian faith mixed-up with many Babylonian traditions became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire and beyond, allowing children of Christian parents to be formally initiated into the now properly instituted church. On the other hand, for many opposing, yet similar religious institutions and movements, the emphasis shifted from baptism as a testimony of personal conversion to a sacrament marking inclusion in the community of faith and receipt of God's grace.
The Practice of Adult/Believer's Baptism: Theological Frameworks and Emphasis
Proponents of adult or believer's baptism (practiced by Baptists, Pentecostals, many non-denominational churches, and others) emphasize that New Testament baptism always follows a conscious, personal decision of faith and repentance. Their arguments include:
Explicit New Testament Examples: As highlighted earlier (Acts 2, 8, 10), every clear instance of baptism in the New Testament shows individuals who first heard the Gospel, believed, and then were baptized as a public declaration of that faith. There are no explicit examples of infant baptism in the biblical text.
Emphasis on Personal Faith and Repentance: Baptism is seen as the outward expression of an inward spiritual experience of regeneration and conversion. The individual must be old enough to understand sin, repent, and consciously place their faith in Jesus Christ and His finished work on the cross. This aligns with the command in Mark 16:16: "Whoever believes and is baptized will be saved..."
Symbolism of Spiritual Rebirth: For believer's baptism, the immersion symbolizes death to the old self and resurrection to a new life in Christ (Romans 6:3-4). This rich symbolism requires the individual to consciously participate in the "dying" and "rising" through faith. It is not merely a sign of inclusion but an act of identification with Christ's victory.
This perspective views baptism as an act of obedience performed by a responsive heart, a public declaration of a private spiritual transformation already wrought by God's grace and an individual's faith in the finished work of Christ.
Water baptism and baptism in the Holy Spirit are distinct yet related concepts in the New Testament, both essential to understanding the Christian experience in light of the finished work of Christ.
Water Baptism (βαπτίζω, baptizō - "to immerse, dip")
Water baptism is an outward, public act performed by a believer, symbolizing an inward spiritual reality.
Symbolism: It symbolizes the believer's identification with Christ's finished work—His death, burial, and resurrection. As Romans 6:3-4 states, "Or do you not know that all of us who have been baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death, in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life." It represents dying to the old life of sin and rising to live a new life in Christ.
Purpose: It's an act of obedience, a public testimony of one's faith in Jesus, and a declaration of their commitment to follow Him. It does not save, but it signifies the salvation already received by grace through faith.
Baptism in the Holy Spirit (πνεύμα ἅγιον, pneuma hagion - "Holy Spirit")
Baptism in the Holy Spirit, on the other hand, is an internal, spiritual experience performed by Christ Himself. John the Baptist prophesied it, contrasting his water baptism with Jesus' greater work: "I baptize you with water for repentance. But after me comes one who is more powerful than I... He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire." (Matthew 3:11; also Acts 1:5).
Symbolism: It signifies the immersion of a believer into the very presence and power of the Holy Spirit.
Purpose:
Incorporation into the Body of Christ: For many institutional church theologians, this is the foundational aspect, indicating that at conversion, every believer is "baptized into one body" by the Spirit (1 Corinthians 12:13). This makes them part of the universal church and united with Christ.
Empowerment for Service: In the Pentecostal and Charismatic traditions, it is often understood as a distinct experience subsequent to conversion, empowering believers with spiritual gifts (like speaking in tongues, prophecy) for effective witness and ministry (Acts 1:8, Acts 2:4, Acts 19:1-6).
Key Differences and Relationship
Agent: Water baptism is performed by a person; Holy Spirit baptism is performed by Christ.
Element: Water baptism uses water; Holy Spirit baptism involves the Holy Spirit.
Timing: Water baptism follows conversion (believer's baptism); Holy Spirit baptism occurs at conversion (for incorporation) and/or as a subsequent empowerment (as understood by some traditions).
Nature: Water baptism is an outward symbol and public declaration; Holy Spirit baptism is an inward spiritual reality and/or empowerment.
Both types of baptism are linked to the finished work of Christ. Water baptism is a response to and proclamation of what Christ has already done on the cross and through His resurrection. Baptism in the Holy Spirit is the application of Christ's finished work, bringing believers into union with Him and empowering them to live out the new life He secured. They are distinct, yet complementary, aspects of the believer's journey in Christ.
Conclusion: The Unifying Power of Christ's Finished Work
Ultimately, the core truth that all Christians should proclaim in baptism, is the acknowledgement (receive) and celebration of the finished work of Jesus Christ (of which we have become part). His perfect life, sacrificial death on the cross, victorious resurrection, and glorious ascension have accomplished all that is necessary for humanity's salvation, reconciliation, and restoration. By being baptised we make a clear public statement of acceptance to the glory of Jesus.
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